Iodine and Thyroid Health in Ireland: Deficiency, Food Sources, Testing and Supplement Safety

You might feel exhausted, cold, constipated or mentally foggy and wonder whether iodine is the missing piece. It may be relevant, but iodine is not a nutrient to guess with. Too little can impair thyroid hormone production. Too much can also disturb thyroid function, particularly if you have Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Graves’ disease, thyroid nodules or an existing thyroid problem.

This matters in Ireland. Recent research identified mild iodine deficiency at population level among school-age girls and mild-to-moderate deficiency among pregnant women. At the same time, kelp, seaweed powders, Lugol’s solution and high-dose products can expose an individual to excessive amounts.

Claire Russell provides Registered Nutritionist Services ONLINE across Ireland and internationally, and in person in Adare, Newcastle West, Limerick, Abbeyfeale, Charleville, Kanturk, Midleton, Youghal, Cork, Lismore, Dungarvan and Dublin. This evidence-based article will help you understand food sources, symptoms, pregnancy needs, testing limitations, thyroid and breast-health claims, and the safest next step for your situation.

Summary

  • Iodine is required to make thyroxine, known as T4, and triiodothyronine, known as T3.
  • The HSE states that adults need about 140 micrograms of iodine daily. EFSA sets an adequate intake of 150 micrograms for adults and 200 micrograms during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
  • A 2025 Irish study found that 40 per cent of 516 school-age girls had dietary iodine intakes below the age-specific estimated average requirement.
  • A separate 2025 study of 1,509 pregnant women in Cork found median urinary iodine concentrations consistent with mild-to-moderate deficiency at population level.
  • Milk, yoghurt, white fish, seafood and eggs are useful sources. Many plant-based milk alternatives contain little iodine unless the label confirms fortification.
  • Kelp and kombu can contain extremely high and unpredictable amounts of iodine.
  • A single spot urine iodine test cannot reliably diagnose an individual deficiency.
  • People with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Graves’ disease, thyroid nodules or abnormal thyroid blood tests should not self-prescribe iodine.
  • Iodine supplements are not established treatments for breast cancer, weight loss, fatigue, ADHD, autism or environmental toxin exposure.

The central safety message: do not use symptoms alone to decide that you need iodine. First establish what you already consume, whether you have a thyroid risk factor and whether your symptoms require medical investigation.

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1. What iodine does in the body

Iodine is a trace mineral, which means your body needs it in a very small quantity. The thyroid gland takes iodide from the bloodstream and uses it to produce T4 and T3. These hormones influence metabolic rate, body temperature, heart rate, digestion, muscle and nerve function, growth, menstrual health and fertility.

Iodine is particularly important before conception, during pregnancy and while breastfeeding. The developing brain depends on adequate maternal thyroid hormone, especially early in pregnancy. Severe deficiency is a recognised cause of preventable neurodevelopmental impairment. Research concerning mild deficiency is less certain, although observational studies have linked lower maternal iodine status with differences in children’s reading, language and cognitive outcomes.18, 19, 20

Iodine also reaches breast milk during lactation, helping to meet the baby’s needs. This normal physiological role does not mean that taking additional iodine prevents or treats breast disease.

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2. What Irish iodine research shows

Ireland has no mandatory salt iodisation programme. A survey of 89 supermarkets on the island of Ireland found iodised salt in only 11 stores, ten of which were specialist ethnic food shops.11 Irish iodine intake therefore depends heavily on food choices, particularly dairy products and fish.

Irish research Key finding What it means
Irish adults, 2017 Among 1,106 adults, 26 per cent had estimated intakes below the estimated average requirement. Milk supplied 45 per cent of intake.7 Most adults were sufficient, but a meaningful subgroup had lower estimated intake.
Teenage girls, 2020 Among 903 girls aged 14 to 15, median urinary iodine concentration was 111 micrograms per litre.8 The group was just above the population threshold for sufficiency, with lower values at several Republic of Ireland sites.
School-age girls, 2025 Median intake was 94.8 micrograms daily. Forty per cent were below the age-specific estimated average requirement. Milk supplied more than half of total iodine intake.9 Girls who consume little or no milk need suitable alternative sources.
Pregnancy cohort, Cork, 2025 Median urinary iodine was 128 micrograms per litre at 11 weeks and 125 micrograms per litre at 15 weeks.10 The findings indicated mild-to-moderate deficiency at population level, not a diagnosis for every participant.

These results do not mean that everybody in Ireland needs a supplement. Population studies identify public-health patterns. An individual decision should consider usual food intake, pregnancy or breastfeeding, thyroid history, medicines and total iodine from every supplement.

A 2024 WHO Europe report also warned that declining dairy consumption and increased use of non-fortified alternatives can increase iodine risk in countries that rely heavily on milk as a source.6

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3. How much iodine do you need?

The HSE states that adults need approximately 140 micrograms daily. The European Food Safety Authority, known as EFSA, sets an adequate intake of 150 micrograms for adults and 200 micrograms during pregnancy and breastfeeding.1, 4

Life stage Reference value Clinical meaning
Adults About 140 to 150 micrograms daily This includes food and supplements combined.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding EFSA adequate intake of 200 micrograms daily Requirements increase, but this is a total intake value rather than a direction to take a 200 microgram supplement.
European adult upper level 600 micrograms daily This is a safety ceiling for long-term total intake, not a target. Some people with thyroid disease may be more sensitive.

The difference between milligrams and micrograms matters. One milligram equals 1,000 micrograms. A product containing 5 milligrams therefore supplies 5,000 micrograms, more than eight times the European adult upper level.

The HSE advises against taking too much iodine and notes that long-term high doses can change thyroid function. FSAI also warns that people affected by iodine deficiency disorders can be more sensitive to exposure.1, 24

Five details to check on an iodine supplement label

  1. The unit: is the amount shown in micrograms or milligrams?
  2. The serving size: is the stated dose for one drop, several drops, one capsule or a daily serving?
  3. The iodine source: is it a measured quantity of potassium iodide or an unpredictable kelp product?
  4. Other products: does your prenatal vitamin, multivitamin or thyroid formula already contain iodine?
  5. Your risk factors: do you have thyroid disease, nodules, pregnancy, relevant medication use or a planned contrast scan?

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4. Iodine-rich foods and plant-based diets

A food-first approach is usually the safest place to begin. Food iodine content can vary according to animal feed, season, species, farming practices and processing.

Food or product What you need to know
Milk and yoghurt Important sources in Irish diets. Milk iodine concentration can be higher in winter than summer.13
White fish, sea fish and shellfish Often useful sources, although amounts differ considerably between species.
Eggs Contribute iodine alongside protein and other nutrients, but should not be the only source.
Plant-based milk alternatives Many contain little iodine unless specifically fortified. Calcium or vitamin B12 fortification does not prove that iodine is present.
Iodised salt Only salt clearly labelled as iodised reliably supplies iodine. Sea salt and pink salt are not automatically iodised.
Seaweed Iodine levels vary widely. Kelp and kombu can contain excessive quantities, especially in dried products.5
Kelp capsules and seaweed powders These may provide an unpredictable dose and are unsuitable as a casual daily supplement.

Do not increase your total salt intake to obtain iodine. Where salt is already used in a small quantity, an iodised variety may be considered. The wider goal remains to keep salt intake within public-health guidance.

If you use a plant-based drink, check the ingredients and nutrition label specifically for iodine, potassium iodide or potassium iodate. Research comparing 47 milk-alternative drinks with cows’ milk found that most unfortified alternatives contained only a small fraction of the iodine in cows’ milk.12

A vegan or dairy-free diet also deserves review for protein, vitamin B12, iron, calcium, vitamin D, selenium and omega-3 fats. Learn more about Registered Nutritionist Services in Ireland.

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5. Iodine deficiency signs and overlapping symptoms

Mild low intake may cause no obvious symptoms. More substantial or prolonged deficiency can contribute to goitre, meaning enlargement of the thyroid gland, and hypothyroidism, meaning insufficient thyroid hormone production.

Possible resulting symptoms include:

  • Persistent tiredness
  • Feeling unusually cold
  • Constipation
  • Dry skin or changes in hair texture
  • Muscle aches or weakness
  • Slower thinking or poor concentration
  • Low mood
  • Menstrual changes or fertility difficulties
  • Unexplained weight change
  • Swelling at the front of the neck

None of these symptoms confirms iodine deficiency. The same pattern can occur with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, iron or vitamin B12 deficiency, coeliac disease, inadequate energy intake, sleep disruption, perimenopause, depression, anxiety, insulin resistance and medication effects.

In my clinical work, this overlap matters. Someone may assume that tiredness, weight gain and poor concentration mean they need iodine. A structured assessment may instead identify autoimmune thyroid disease, anaemia, digestive illness, hormonal change, restrictive eating or several interacting factors.

An anonymised County Limerick clinical illustration

A woman in her mid-thirties experienced fatigue, constipation, health anxiety and difficulty conceiving. She assumed she was iodine deficient and bought a kelp supplement. Her symptoms required GP-led thyroid investigation alongside review of iron intake, coeliac disease risk, sleep and a restrictive eating pattern. The safest next step was not a stronger supplement. It was identifying which factors needed medical, nutritional and psychological care.

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6. Hashimoto’s, Graves’ disease and excess iodine

When the thyroid receives a sudden large iodine load, it temporarily reduces thyroid hormone production. This is called the Wolff-Chaikoff effect. Most healthy thyroid glands adapt, but susceptible people may develop either reduced or excessive thyroid activity after high exposure.16, 17

Seek professional advice before taking iodine if you have:

  • Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
  • Graves’ disease
  • Thyroid nodules or a goitre
  • Abnormal TSH or free T4 results
  • Previous thyroid surgery or radioactive iodine treatment
  • Thyroid cancer care
  • Treatment with levothyroxine, carbimazole, amiodarone or lithium
  • Recent or planned iodinated contrast for a medical scan

Selenium-containing enzymes help convert T4 into active T3 and protect thyroid tissue from oxidative stress. That does not make a high-dose iodine and selenium protocol safe. Excess selenium can also cause harm, and adding cofactors does not neutralise an excessive iodine dose.

Read about autoimmune disease management and nutrition in Ireland.

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7. Pregnancy, fertility, babies and teenagers

Iodine requirements rise during pregnancy because maternal thyroid hormone production increases, iodine loss through urine rises and the developing baby depends on maternal iodine. The HSE states that it can be difficult to obtain enough from diet during pregnancy and breastfeeding.2

Current HSE guidance says pregnancy multivitamins usually contain 100 to 200 micrograms and advises checking the label. Its guidance for vegetarian and vegan pregnancy says to check that a pregnancy multivitamin provides 120 to 150 micrograms of iodine.2, 3 This is a supplement dose, not the same as EFSA’s total daily adequate intake of 200 micrograms.

Do not combine a prenatal multivitamin, thyroid formula, seaweed product and separate iodine supplement without calculating the complete dose. If you take levothyroxine during pregnancy, continue it unless your prescriber changes the dose. Thyroid blood tests often require closer monitoring during pregnancy.

Teenagers with dairy-free diets, eating disorders, food anxiety, sensory food restrictions, coeliac disease or very limited accepted foods may have several nutrient gaps at the same time. Iodine should be considered alongside growth, total energy, protein, iron, vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium, selenium, digestive health and emotional wellbeing.

Iodine is essential for normal brain development, but supplementation is not an established treatment for ADHD, autism, anxiety or concentration problems.

An anonymised East Cork clinical illustration

A teenager from East Cork avoided fish, eggs and dairy and used an oat drink fortified with calcium but not iodine. Rather than adding seaweed powder, the practical steps were to review accepted foods, identify a suitable iodine-fortified alternative, involve a parent appropriately and arrange GP assessment where symptoms and growth history indicated it.

Read about fertility support for couples in Ireland.

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8. Iodine and breast health

Breast tissue can transport iodine, particularly during pregnancy and lactation. This biological fact has been used to promote claims that iodine prevents breast cancer or treats fibrocystic breast symptoms. The evidence does not justify those claims.

An older clinical study reported improvement in some women with fibrocystic breast disease, but adverse effects occurred and the study does not establish iodine as a modern standard treatment.22

A 2020 prospective nested case-control study examined 1,159 breast cancer cases. It found no overall association between serum iodine and breast cancer risk. A lower risk was observed only in a subgroup with both higher iodine and higher selenium, an observational finding that cannot show that supplements prevent cancer.21

Evidence question Current conclusion Evidence confidence
Is iodine required for thyroid hormone production? Yes. This is firmly established. High
Is iodine important during pregnancy and early development? Yes. This is firmly established. High
Are some Irish groups at risk of low intake? Yes. Recent population studies identify concern among pregnant women and girls. Moderate to high for population risk
Does routine supplementation improve every outcome in mild deficiency? No firm conclusion can be drawn. Trial evidence remains limited and mixed. Low to moderate
Does iodine prevent or treat breast cancer? There is no reliable clinical evidence supporting this use. Insufficient for treatment or prevention
Does iodine cause weight loss or remove environmental toxins? These are not evidence-based reasons to take iodine. Unsupported

A new breast lump, nipple change, skin dimpling, persistent one-sided pain or unusual discharge needs prompt GP assessment and appropriate breast-service referral. Do not delay assessment while trying a supplement.

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9. Can iodine deficiency be tested?

Urinary iodine concentration is useful for assessing groups because most recently consumed iodine is excreted in urine. It is much less reliable for diagnosing one person.

A spot result changes with hydration, recent food, supplements, time of day and normal day-to-day dietary variation. Research found that ten repeat spot or 24-hour collections were needed to estimate an individual woman’s iodine status with 20 per cent precision.14, 15

A thorough assessment may include:

  • A seven-day record of food, drinks and supplements
  • Pregnancy, breastfeeding, menstrual and fertility history
  • Thyroid, autoimmune and family history
  • Digestive conditions such as coeliac disease and previous bariatric surgery
  • Medication, antiseptic and medical-scan exposure
  • GP-led TSH and free T4 testing
  • Thyroid antibodies or imaging when clinically indicated
  • Assessment of iron, vitamin B12, folate and vitamin D when appropriate
  • Review of blood sugar regulation, sleep and other explanations for fatigue

Commercial iodine loading tests should not be treated as a stand-alone diagnosis. Normal thyroid blood results do not prove that dietary iodine intake is ideal. Equally, an abnormal thyroid result does not prove that iodine deficiency is the cause.

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10. The Claire Russell Therapy IODINE Safety Framework

I use this structured reasoning process when considering iodine exposure, symptoms and supplementation.

Claire Russell Therapy IODINE Safety Framework: a six-step clinical reasoning guide

The Claire Russell Therapy IODINE Safety Framework is a clinical reasoning aid. It is not a diagnostic test and does not replace medical assessment.

A practical iodine decision pathway

  1. You feel well but eat few iodine-containing foods: review a typical week of food and drink, then identify measured food sources or a properly fortified alternative.
  2. You have fatigue, weight change, constipation, palpitations or neck swelling: arrange GP assessment rather than assuming the cause is iodine.
  3. You are pregnant, breastfeeding, vegan or dairy-free: check every label and discuss the total dose with your maternity team, pharmacist or Registered Nutritionist.
  4. You have Hashimoto’s, Graves’ disease, thyroid nodules or take thyroid-related medicine: do not self-prescribe kelp, Lugol’s solution or high-dose iodine.
  5. You notice a new breast change: seek prompt medical assessment. Do not use iodine as a substitute for investigation.

The key question is not simply whether the symptoms resemble iodine deficiency. It is which explanation best fits your diet, thyroid history, life stage, medicines, test results and complete symptom pattern.

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11. When symptoms involve more than iodine

Fatigue, cravings, constipation, weight change, poor sleep, low mood, anxiety and concentration difficulty rarely belong to one nutrient alone. Thyroid function can intersect with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and other autoimmune conditions, coeliac disease, reflux, bloating, IBS, metabolic health, fertility, PMS, PMDD, perimenopause, eating disorders, restrictive eating, food and sugar addiction, ADHD, trauma-related difficulties, chronic pain and fatigue.

Registered Nutritionist support can assess diet quality, iodine exposure, digestive symptoms, blood sugar patterns and nutrient interactions. Counselling and Psychotherapy can address health anxiety, restrictive eating, body image, trauma-related difficulties and the emotional burden of persistent symptoms.

Clinical Hypnotherapy, Clinical Medical Hypnotherapy, Hypnosis and Rapid Transformational Therapy may assist appropriate goals involving behaviour change, food-related fear, cravings, stress responses and sleep. These services do not replace thyroid diagnosis, prescribed medication, cancer investigation or correction of a confirmed nutritional deficiency.

Where fertility treatment, chronic symptoms or uncertainty are placing strain on a relationship, Couples Counselling or Marriage Counselling may help partners communicate more clearly and make decisions together. In my experience, the most useful plan is rarely the one with the longest supplement list. It is the one that separates what needs medical investigation, what can be improved through food and routine, and what needs psychological or behavioural care.

Further reading:

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12. Frequently asked questions about iodine

1. What are the first signs of iodine deficiency?

There may be no early signs. Tiredness, feeling cold, constipation, dry skin, poor concentration, menstrual changes, goitre and weight change can occur if thyroid function is affected, but none confirms iodine deficiency.

2. How much iodine does an adult need each day?

The HSE states approximately 140 micrograms daily. EFSA uses an adequate intake of 150 micrograms. These figures include food and supplements combined.

3. Should I take iodine for an underactive thyroid?

Not automatically. Hypothyroidism is often unrelated to iodine deficiency. Excess iodine can worsen thyroid dysfunction in susceptible people.

4. Is iodine safe with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis?

Extra iodine can worsen thyroid dysfunction in some people with Hashimoto’s. Avoid high-dose iodine, kelp and Lugol’s solution unless your medical team has a specific, monitored reason.

5. Can iodine help with weight loss or fatigue?

Correcting a genuine deficiency supports normal thyroid hormone production. Taking more than you need does not safely accelerate metabolism and may cause underactive or overactive thyroid function.

6. Is seaweed a safe daily iodine source?

Not reliably. Nori may contain moderate amounts, while kelp and kombu can contain extremely high quantities. Content varies between species and batches.

7. Do plant-based milk drinks contain iodine?

Some do, but many do not. Check specifically for iodine, potassium iodide or potassium iodate. Calcium fortification does not mean iodine is included.

8. Do I need iodine when pregnant or trying to conceive?

Requirements increase, but the right approach depends on diet, thyroid history and the complete contents of a prenatal product. Discuss supplementation with your GP, midwife, pharmacist or Registered Nutritionist.

9. Can one urine test diagnose iodine deficiency?

A single spot urine test generally cannot diagnose an individual. Iodine excretion changes substantially from one day to another.

10. Does iodine prevent breast cancer?

There is no reliable clinical evidence that iodine supplements prevent or treat breast cancer.

11. Should iodine always be taken with selenium?

No. Selenium is important for thyroid enzymes, but adding selenium does not make excessive iodine safe. Both nutrients can cause harm in excessive amounts.

12. Is shellfish allergy the same as iodine allergy?

No. Iodine is not the allergen in shellfish, and shellfish allergy does not itself predict a reaction to iodinated contrast. Tell radiology staff about any previous contrast reaction.23

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Book a Consultation Now

If you are uncertain whether your diet supplies enough iodine, are taking several supplements, have thyroid-related symptoms or need a structured dietary and nutritional assessment, book a consultation with Claire Russell.

Appointments are available ONLINE across Ireland and internationally.

In-person appointments are available in Adare, Newcastle West, Limerick, Abbeyfeale, Charleville, Kanturk, Midleton, Youghal, Cork, Lismore, Dungarvan and Dublin.

Phone: +353 87 616 6638
Email: clairerusselltherapy@gmail.com

Book a consultation
Contact Claire Russell Therapy

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About the author

Claire Russell, MSc, BSc, DipNT, MNTOI, is a Registered Nutritionist, Clinical Medical Hypnotherapist, Clinical Hypnotherapist, Counsellor, Psychotherapist, RTT practitioner and Advanced Rapid Transformational Therapist with more than 20 years of clinical experience across Ireland, the UK and Europe.

Claire works with adults, teenagers and children. Her clinical areas include thyroid and hormonal concerns, fertility, gut and digestive health, metabolic health, autoimmune symptoms, eating disorders, food and sugar addiction, anxiety, depression, trauma-related difficulties, ADHD, neurodivergence, sleep, chronic pain, fatigue, skin problems, grief and relationship difficulties.

Read more about Claire Russell.

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Clinical and editorial transparency

This article was written and clinically reviewed by Claire Russell. It was checked against current HSE, FSAI, EFSA and WHO guidance, peer-reviewed systematic reviews and Irish population research. Particular attention was given to pregnancy, thyroid autoimmunity, testing limitations, supplement safety and the difference between established evidence and emerging hypotheses.

Last clinically reviewed: 14 August 2026
Suggested next review: 14 August 2027, or sooner if Irish or European guidance changes.

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Educational disclaimer

This article is for educational purposes only. It does not diagnose iodine deficiency, thyroid disease, breast disease or any other medical condition.

Do not stop thyroid medication or begin high-dose iodine, kelp, Lugol’s solution or potassium iodide without advice from your GP, endocrinologist, obstetric team, pharmacist or another appropriately qualified clinician.

Seek prompt medical assessment for neck swelling, difficulty breathing or swallowing, marked palpitations, fainting, severe weakness, a new breast lump or concerning breast changes.

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Academic references and clinical guidance

  1. Health Service Executive. Iodine: Vitamins and Minerals. Page last reviewed 27 April 2023. https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/iodine/
  2. Health Service Executive. Healthy Eating During Pregnancy. Page last reviewed 27 March 2026. https://www2.hse.ie/pregnancy-birth/keeping-well/food-drink/healthy-eating/
  3. Health Service Executive. Vegetarian and Vegan Diets in Pregnancy. Page last reviewed 26 June 2025. https://www2.hse.ie/pregnancy-birth/keeping-well/vegetarian-and-vegan-diets-in-pregnancy/
  4. European Food Safety Authority Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for Iodine. EFSA Journal. 2014;12(5):3660. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3660
  5. Food Safety Authority of Ireland. Safety Considerations of Seaweed and Seaweed-derived Foods Available on the Irish Market. 2020. https://www.fsai.ie/getmedia/ab05b59a-786a-400c-9ed2-2e3ebbc04c72/safety-considerations-of-seaweed-and-seaweed-derived-foods-available-on-the-irish-market-
  6. World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. Prevention and Control of Iodine Deficiency in the WHO European Region: Adapting to Changes in Diet and Lifestyle. 2024. https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289061193
  7. McNulty BA, Nugent AP, Walton J, Flynn A, Tlustos C, Gibney MJ. Iodine Intakes and Status in Irish Adults: Is There Cause for Concern? British Journal of Nutrition. 2017;117(3):422-431. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114516004347
  8. Mullan K, Hamill L, Doolan K, et al. Iodine Status of Teenage Girls on the Island of Ireland. European Journal of Nutrition. 2020;59(5):1859-1867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-019-02037-x
  9. Kane E, Buffini M, Moore Heslin A, et al. Iodine Intake and Status of School-age Girls in Ireland. European Journal of Nutrition. 2025;64:214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-025-03731-9
  10. Kelliher L, Kiely ME, Browne JRM, O’Callaghan YC, Hennessy Á. Mild-to-moderate Iodine Deficiency Among Pregnant Women in Ireland: Data From a Large Prospective Pregnancy Cohort. European Journal of Nutrition. 2025;64:173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-025-03692-z
  11. Shaw M, Nugent AP, McNulty BA, et al. What Is the Availability of Iodised Salt in Supermarkets on the Island of Ireland? European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2019;73(12):1636-1638. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-019-0518-6
  12. Bath SC, Hill S, Infante HG, Elghul S, Nezianya CJ, Rayman MP. Iodine Concentration of Milk-alternative Drinks Available in the UK in Comparison With Cows’ Milk. British Journal of Nutrition. 2017;118(7):525-532. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114517002136
  13. O’Kane SM, Pourshahidi LK, Mulhern MS, et al. The Effect of Processing and Seasonality on the Iodine and Selenium Concentration of Cow’s Milk Produced in Northern Ireland: Implications for Population Dietary Intake. Nutrients. 2018;10(3):287. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10030287
  14. Wainwright P, Cook P. The Assessment of Iodine Status: Populations, Individuals and Limitations. Annals of Clinical Biochemistry. 2019;56(1):7-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004563218774816
  15. König F, Andersson M, Hotz K, Aeberli I, Zimmermann MB. Ten Repeat Collections for Urinary Iodine From Spot Samples or 24-hour Samples Are Needed to Reliably Estimate Individual Iodine Status in Women. Journal of Nutrition. 2011;141(11):2049-2054. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.144071
  16. Leung AM, Braverman LE. Consequences of Excess Iodine. Nature Reviews Endocrinology. 2014;10(3):136-142. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2013.251
  17. Farebrother J, Zimmermann MB, Andersson M. Excess Iodine Intake: Sources, Assessment and Effects on Thyroid Function. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2019;1446(1):44-65. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14041
  18. Dineva M, Fishpool H, Rayman MP, Mendis J, Bath SC. Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Iodine Supplementation on Thyroid Function and Child Neurodevelopment in Mildly-to-moderately Iodine-deficient Pregnant Women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2020;112(2):389-412. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa071
  19. Harding KB, Peña-Rosas JP, Webster AC, et al. Iodine Supplementation for Women During the Preconception, Pregnancy and Postpartum Period. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017;3:CD011761. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011761.pub2
  20. Bath SC, Steer CD, Golding J, Emmett P, Rayman MP. Effect of Inadequate Iodine Status in UK Pregnant Women on Cognitive Outcomes in Their Children: Results From the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. The Lancet. 2013;382(9889):331-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60436-5
  21. Manjer J, Sandsveden M, Borgquist S. Serum Iodine and Breast Cancer Risk: A Prospective Nested Case-control Study Stratified for Selenium Levels. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2020;29(7):1335-1340. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-20-0122
  22. Ghent WR, Eskin BA, Low DA, Hill LP. Iodine Replacement in Fibrocystic Disease of the Breast. Canadian Journal of Surgery. 1993;36(5):453-460. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8221402/
  23. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Radiocontrast and Seafood Allergy: The Myths and Facts. https://www.aaaai.org/tools-for-the-public/conditions-library/allergies/radiocontrast
  24. Food Safety Authority of Ireland. The Safety of Vitamins and Minerals in Food Supplements: Establishing Tolerable Upper Intake Levels and a Risk Assessment Approach for Products Marketed in Ireland, Revision 2. 2020. https://www.fsai.ie/getmedia/278afeef-0e80-492b-9aae-61ce44307cbd/9565_fsai_vitaminsandminerals_report_fa3

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